SARA FORSDYKE -- Ph.D. – Professor at University of Michigan
I think you are right that the interests of elite individuals/factions/families played a decisive role in Greek wars. The classic case would be Alcibiades, who was the main advocate of the Sicilian expedition. Thucydides says explicitly that Alcibiades was motivated by personal interest. Much recent research confirms that the elites benefitted most from Athens' imperial expansion, especially through the acquisition of property (cleruchies) in other states. See Alfonso Moreno's book on the Athenian grain supply for some of this.
I hope this helps.
Sara
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POLLY LOW -- Ph.D. – Professor at University of Manchester
Dear Dr. Kolkey,
The short answer to your question is: yes. Factionalism of various sorts surely has an important influence on the conduct (and shaping) of foreign policy -- not just groupings within a city, but also (and maybe sometimes even more importantly?) ties that cross the boundaries between city-states (guest-friendship, for example). Finding formal 'parties', or even stable factions, is rather more tricky -- my impression is that there might be broad groupings (based on political outlook; wealth; geographical location; or loyalty to a particular individual), but that these aren't entirely stable, and make break up and reconstitute on a fairly regular basis, depending on circumstances.
In Athens, the power of individuals/factions are perhaps slightly constrained by the fact that policy decisions have to be endorsed by the assembly (though even here there seems to be scope for unofficial action -- lots of the confusion in Athenian policy towards Euboea in the 350s/40s, for example, can perhaps be attributed to different groups within Athens -- and esp. different generals -- pushing their own ideas of what the policy should be. Various accounts of the origins of the Peloponnesian War (e.g. Aristophanes') make Pericles' personal ambition (and/or need to distract attention from a financial scandal...) the main cause of the war. And Alcibiades' machinations in the Peloponnesian War, as depicted by Thucydides, could also be relevant: he seems to be able to sway the assembly into not making a treaty with Sparta (purely, according to Thucydides, because he's annoyed with Sparta over a personal slight...); and later on seems to shape Athenian policy towards Persia with the same, primarily personal, ambitions in mind.
Sparta (and particularly fourth-century Sparta) provides some very good examples too -- all of Lysander's activities after the Peloponnesian War; or Sphodrias' raid on Athens (and the Spartan reaction to it -- at least as described by Xenophon -- which seems to show precisely the sort of faction-driven policy making which you're looking for).
Have you looked at Lynette Mitchell's work on this subject (*Greeks bearing gifts*)? That has a very thorough -- and to my mind persuasive -- account of the ways in which private ambitions/relationships/etc influenced the foreign politics of the Greek city-states.
All best wishes,
Polly Low
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JOHN W. I. Lee – Ph.D. -- Professor at University of California, Santa Barbara
Jonathan,
Yes, Greek history offers much of interest for understanding modern politics.
Since you have read Thucydides, you will already know the classic example of the Sicilian Expedition in Book 6. Nicias and Alcibiades both pursued factional politics. In this case, the factions were drawn along generational lines. Nicias' attempt to appeal to both factions ultimately drew the Athenians into a war they didn't intend....
Best,
John
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ERIC WILD ROBINSON -- Ph.D. – Professor at Indiana University
Dear Dr. Kolkey,
Thucydides will certainly tend to confirm your ideas. As a political writer he is all about seeing behind whatever facade politicians provide as justification for this or that policy and detecting the "truest cause" for events. If you are looking for particular cases of war or peace decisions working this way, you will find a number in Thucydides' text, most obviously his account in Book 6 of how the Athenian expedition to Sicily came about. On the other hand, Thucydides admired Pericles greatly, and his role in bringing about the Peloponnesian War is portrayed more as pure statesmanship than a case of private motivation trumping public policy. But if you consult Plutarch's _Pericles_ you will find that charges were made at the time that Pericles had personal reasons for what he did in helping to bring on the war.
I have gone on record with some opinions about war, peace and democracy among the Greek city-states. Attached is the text of an article I published on the subject, in case you have trouble getting the journal issue (citation: “Thucydides and Democratic Peace,” in Journal of Military Ethics 5.4 (2006), 243-53.) I hope it's helpful.
All best,
Eric Robinson
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PETER ALAN HUNT -- Ph.D. – Professor at Harvard University
Dear Jonathan,
Thank you for sharing your ideas with me. I think that you are right to read
Thucydides, esp. around 2.65 or so and in book 5 when he talks about why
Brasidas and Cleon wanted the war to continue and why Nicias wanted to make
peace; Thucydides certainly makes an argument very similar to yours. You might
also want to look at a couple of articles by Kurt Raaflaub:
Raaflaub, K. (1998). Leaders in War and Bravery: The Ideology of War in late
fifth-century Athens. Gail A. Burnett Lectures in Classics, San Diego State
University.
Raaflaub, K. (1994) "Democracy, Power, and Imperialism in fifth-century Athens,"
in Athenian Political Thought and the Reconstruction of American Democracy, eds,
P. Euben, J. R. Wallach and J. Ober. Ithaca: 103-146.
These treat the way that leaders might favor war because it game them
opportunities.
Your thesis will have to be subtle. In particular, leaders often gain the most
from advocating successful policies, which would tend to line up their selfish
interests and service to the state. Good luck with your project.
Yours,
Peter
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MICHAEL WHITBY -- Ph.D. -- Professor at University of Warwick
Dear Jonathan,
I suggest that you start by reading Thucydides who provides much relevant evidence (e.g. book for on Cleon, book 6 on the Sicilian debates, book 8 on Alicibiades).
Hope this gets you started.
Best wishes,
Michael Whitby
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